A blow to the head can lead to unconsciousness. The patient should be checked immediately to ensure that the airways are clear to allow unobstructed breathing, then checked for major bleeding and fractures and then placed in the recovery position (fig 1.).

If possible, do not leave the victim unattended. Try to raise the head and shoulders (packwith stones, etc.).

Unless essential, do not move the patient but make him as comfortable as possible. With chest injuries where internal bleeding is suspected, turn the patient on to the injured side to prevent blood collapsing the good lung.

Splints for limb fractures can be made from boat floorboards, driftwood or any solid object. Slings and padding can be made from towels or clothing.

The illustrations show the way to apply splints and slings to fractures of chest wall ribs (fig 2.) upper arm (fig 3) and legs and pelvis (fig 4.).

Splints should be padded for comfort and protection of the injured area.

Bleeding from any cut can be controlled by direct pressure over the affected area using any flat object, e.g. a smooth river stone.

A clean dressing should be placed over the area first and after bandaging the area should be elevated and rested if possible.

Usually the result of petrol fire. If a person is aflame, douse with water or smother with a blanket or rug. To reduce pain and disability pour cold water gently over the the affected area for 10 minutes (maximum) and then cover with clean dry material.

Do not use oils, creams, butter etc. on burnt areas. Leave blisters alone. Beware of shock setting in. Evacuate early in the case of severe burns. They get worse with time.

Keep in waterproof containers and must include:
1. St. John's first aid manual
2. Several bandages: crepe or cotton, 50mm, 75mm, 150mm and triangular.
3. Dressings: several Telfa dressings, small and large, assorted Elastoplast strips.
4. Roll of cotton wool (25 gram), safety pins, roll of adhesive plaster.
5. One super insulation rescue sheet, e.g. Soehngen.
6. Matches (30 waterproof or in waterproof con tainers).
7. A knife.

Excessive cooling of the body causes this condition, e.g. from exposure to excessive cold water, rain, water or from severe exhaustion. The main signs of this condition are:
1. Coolness of the skin.
2. Fatigue.
3. Irritability.
4. Slurred speech.
5. Unsteady walking.
6. Excessive shivering with increased pulse and respirations.
7. Finally drowsiness and coma.
Treatment:
Put the patient to rest in a sheltered area. Provide warmth - do not heat them up too quickly. Warm drinks. Provide warm drink and food only to conscious patients. Never give alcohol and don't rub the patient. Move the patient gently. Huddle up close to them and provide body heat. Evacuate only after the patient's condition has improved.

Don't waste time - begin treatment immediately.
Treatment:
1. Quickly remove any obstructions from the victim's mouth. Place victim on his back and begin artificial ventilation immediately.
2. Check breathing and heartbeat and continue resuscitation if necessary.
3. As soon as the victim begins breathing normally place in the recovery position.
4. Keep the victim warm. If possible remove wet clothes and dry the victim. Then cover with spare clothes and/or towels and, if necessary, treat for hypothermia.Artificial (mouth to mouth) ventilation
method:
1. Remove any obvious obstructions over the face or constrictions around the neck. Open the airway and remove any debris seen in the mouth or throat.
2. Open your mouth wide, take a deep breath, pinch the victim's nostrils together with your fingers and seal your lips around the mouth.
3. Looking along the chest, blow into the victim's lungs until you can see the chest rise to maximum expansion. Note: If the chest fails to rise assume first that the airway is not fully open. Adjust the position of the head and jaw and try again. If there is still no ventilation the airway may be blocked and you will have to provide treatment for choking.
4. Remove your mouth well away from the victim's and breath out any excess air. Watch the chest fall and then take in fresh air. Repeat inflation. Note: Give the first four inflations as quickly as possible without waiting for complete lung deflation between breaths.
5. Check victim's pulse to make sure the heart is beating. If it is beating normally continue inflations at 16 to 18 times a minute until the victim is breathing normally. If the heart is not beating, lay the victim on the back of a hard surface. Kneel alongside the chest and find the lower half of the breast bone. Using the middle and index fingers of the hand nearest to the victim's feet locate the lower margins of his rib cage. Run your middle finger along the edge of the rib cage to the notch where the ribs meet the breast bone. With the middle finger on the notch, place your index finger beside it and place the heel of your other hand on the lower half of the victim's breast bone next to your index finger.
6. Place the heel of one hand on the centre of the lower half of breast bone, keeping your fingers off the ribs. Cover this hand with the heel of your other hand and lock your fingers together.
7. Keep your arms straight and move forward until your arms are vertical. Press down on the lower half of the breast bone (about 80 mm or 1 1/2 to 2 inches for the average adult). Move backwards to release pressure. Complete 15 compressions at the rate of 80 per minute (for correct speed count: "one and two and three and four " and so on).
8. Move back to the victim's head, reopen the airway, seal it and give two breaths of mouth-to-mouth ventilation.
9. Continue 15 compressions followed by 2 full ventilations. Check heartbeat after the first minute and thereafter check every 12 cycles or three minutes.
10. As soon as the heartbeat returns, stop compressions immediately. Continue with mouth-to-mouth until natural breathing is restored.

It is imperative that any obstruction be removed as soon as possible. Heimlich manoeuvre with the victim standing or sitting (conscious). The rescuer should stand behind the victim, wrap his arms around the victim's waist and proceed as follows: Make a fist with one hand. Place the thumb side of the fist against the victims abdomen in the midline slightly above the navel and well below the tip of the xiphoid process. Grasp the fist with the other hand. Press the fist into the victim's abdomen with a quick upward thrust. Each new thrust should be a separate and distinct movement. Heimlich manoeuvre with the victim lying (unconcious). The victim should be placed on his back. The rescuer kneels astride the victim's thighs and places the heel of one hand against his abdomen in the midline slightly above the navel and well below the tip of the ziphoid, and the second hand directly on top of the first. The rescuer presses into the adbomen with a quick upward thrust. If the rescuer is in the correct position, he has a natural mid-abdomeninal position and is thus unlikely to direct the thrust to the right or left. A rescuer too short to reach around the waist of a victim who is conscious can use this technique. The rescuer can use his body weight to perform the manoeuvre.

Major signs are:
1. Skin becomes pale, cold and clammy and sweating might develop.
2. Fainting and giddyness.
3. Nausea and vomiting.
4. Anxiety.
5. Pulse and respirations become rapid and shallow.
Treatment:
1. Reassure and comfort the victim.
2. Lie the patient down, keep the head low and turned to one side, raise the legs unless you suspect fractures.
3. Keep warm but do not overheat.
4. Loosen any tight clothing.
5. If thirsty, moisten lips with water, but do not give anything to drink.
6. Do not move victims more than necessary.
7. Evacuate to hospital quickly.
Note:do not move the victim unnecessarily
do not give anything by mouth
do not allow the victim to smoke.